Napoleonic Invasion
The beginning of Egyptian modern history can be traced back to the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt in the years between 1798 and 1801. Napoleon Bonaparte, after having led a successful campaign into Italy, led a military expedition to Egypt; his motivations were to construct a canal through Suez and to destroy British domination of the sea. Ironically, his expedition was also accompanied by several artists and historians who later discovered the Rosetta stone and revived the interest in ancient Egyptian history. Napoleon quickly maneuvered across the Mediterranean and landed on the shores of Egypt, after having conquered the island of Malta. Egypt, heavily embroiled in a civil war between the mameluks and the Ottomans, was not prepared for Napoleon’s invasion. The remaining mameluk armies were destroyed at the Battle of the Pyramids in 1798 and Napoleon gained control of Lower Egypt. However, British naval forces destroyed his fleet harbored on the coast, thereby preventing the arrival of reinforcements; furthermore, the Ottoman and Russian Empires were persuaded to join the war against France. Napoleon, even with his malnutrition and tired army, defeated the combined forces in Syria-Palestine and on the coast of Egypt and strengthened his control of the region. Unfortunately, Napoleon was called back to France and the French occupation of Egypt did not last long. Despite efforts to remain in control, the French were finally defeated after the British invaded the country. This first period of British occupation lasted only to 1803. However, the French invasion had greatly destabilized the country and Egypt was now ripe for the rise of a charismatic military leader.